The City of Limoges
Limoges is situated on the Vienne River about 160 miles south southwest of Paris. It is the capital of Haute-Vienne (departement) and of the Limousin region.
The Limoges Porcelain Industry
Kaolin, the fine white clay essential to porcelain making, was discovered about 18 miles southwest of Limoges at St. Yrieix in 1765. The first porcelain factory in Limoges was established 6 years later in 1771. Within a few years, the factory became a brach of the royal manufacture at Sevres; porcelain blanks produced at Limoges during this period were decorated at Sevres. Production stopped in 1791 but was revived in 1797.
The Baignol and Alluaud factories accounted for three quarters of Limoges production in the very early 19th Century. They were paternal overseers, and they frequently labored along side their workers. In spite of good labor relations and ability to increase production, deflated markets and constant wars limited the expansion of the porcelain industry.
Prospects brightened during the restoration, and Limoges was well situated for expansion of its porcelain industry. Firstly, it had the kaolin deposits at St. Yrieix. The forests of the Limousin supplied the massive quantities of wood needed to fire the kilns. The Vienne River floated the logs to Limoges and supplied the power to pulverize and work the clay. Abundant workers were willing to leave the infertile surrounding land and work in the factories.
Production costs and labor were lower in the provinces than in Paris, and several porcelain factories relocated from Paris to the provinces. Some came to Limoges. Four porcelain factories in Limoges in 1819 had increased to nine by 1824. The Limoges porcelain industry employed 800-900 workers in 1828, second only to the textile industry. Limoges' other, much less significant, industries were tanning, paper making (100 workers), bookbinding and printing, a manufacture of weights and measured (75 workers), and numerous lesser industries, including a few "silver and enamel workers with little but centuries of proud tradition to support them."
Increased production and lower production costs reduced retail prices and stimulated demand. At the same time German, Spanish and Italian markets opened to French porcelain. Thus, Limoges prospered despite the economic crisis of 1826-7, although there were two bankruptcies during the 1820's.
The population of Limoges in 1831 was about 6,700 households with over 27,000 people.
Some of the steps in the production of Limoges porcelain
- Kaolin is extracted from the quarries and transported to the mills
- The clay is dried in the sun and visible impurities removed
- The clay is ground to a smooth texture, passed through a silk screen, formed into balls and delivered to the factory
- The pasty clay is beaten and kneaded to remove air bubbles
- Turners shape the paste on a wheel, using a knife
- Molders again remove impurities and further shape each piece
- The pieces are baked in enormous ovens at a low temperature
- The low-fired pieces are dipped in a water emulsion of feldspar and powdered quartz
- The dipped pieces are fired at very high temperatures for 30 to 45 hours. The men responsible for this firing stayed at work for the entire preparation and actual firing. They worked extremely long hours.
- The fired porcelain is checked for imperfections, and the acceptable pieces are burnished and polished. This produces the fine, pure white porcelain, which was the most popular variety at the time; but some of the porcelain was not left plain.
- Porcelain artists add the painted decoration and final touches; these artisans usually worked at home.
- The painted porcelain is fired at low temperature in smaller ovens to fix the decoration.
Work in the porcelain factories was hard work, with up to 14 hour work days, and the dust and chemicals made conditions very unhealthy. Tuberculosis and other diseases were very common. The work also was diverse; there were about 37 different occupations within the procelain industry
Growth during the 1830's, 40's and 50's
Production fell during the economic crises accompanying the revolution of 1830, and output did not return to the 1829 level until 1833. During the downturn, wages were cut 20%, and labor discontent formented.
In spite of economic crises during the 1830's and 40's, porcelain production increased dramatically, growing from 11 factories with 1,200 workers in 1837 to 27 factories with 3,166 workers in 1861. Major factors in this growth were
- the gradual transfer from wood to coal to fire the furnaces. Firing a furnace required only half the tonnage of coal as of wood. The price of wood increased by about 40% from 1856 to 1862, so the timing of the change to coal was quite fortunate. Sixteen of the forty kilns in Limoges had converted to coal by 1861.
- the arrival of the railway in 1856. This reduced the cost of materials, and it gave improved access to new markets. Factories surrounding Limoges closed, because access to the railroad outweighed the slightly lower labor cost outside the city.
- the liberalization of tarrifs by the Cobden-Chevalier Treaty of 1860.
HAVILAND
In 1842 David Haviland come to Limoges from New York seeking porcelain to import into the United States. The Haviland family had earlier emigrated from Limoges to the US. By 1855 he had constructed an enormous factory in Limoges. The Haviland factory (see illustration) was listed as a major monument in the guide book to Limousin region. It was the first factory to combine all phases of production, including decoration workshops.
Although Limoges had won a major share of the French market for porcelain, by the late 1850's, about half of the porcelain produced in Limoges was exported to the United States. The growth of exports to other countries only somewhat reduced the devasting effect of the Civil War on exports to the US.
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